Hinduism and Buddhism Play Crucial Roles in the Development of Art in India

Art from Indian Subcontinent cultures

From the depiction of Hindu gods, and other mythological characters, the Kalighat painting reflects a variety of subjects, including many depictions of everyday life.

Indian art consists of a variety of art forms, including painting, sculpture, pottery, and fabric arts such equally woven silk. Geographically, it spans the entire Indian subcontinent, including what is at present Bharat, Islamic republic of pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and at times eastern Afghanistan. A stiff sense of design is characteristic of Indian art and can exist observed in its modern and traditional forms.

The origin of Indian art tin be traced to prehistoric settlements in the 3rd millennium BC. On its way to mod times, Indian art has had cultural influences, as well equally religious influences such equally Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and Islam. In spite of this complex mixture of religious traditions, more often than not, the prevailing artistic fashion at any fourth dimension and place has been shared past the major religious groups.

In celebrated fine art, sculpture in stone and metal, mainly religious, has survived the Indian climate amend than other media and provides almost of the all-time remains. Many of the most important ancient finds that are not in carved stone come from the surrounding, drier regions rather than India itself. Indian funeral and philosophic traditions exclude grave goods, which is the chief source of ancient fine art in other cultures.

Indian artist styles historically followed Indian religions out of the subcontinent, having an especially large influence in Tibet, Due south East Asia and China. Indian art has itself received influences at times, especially from Central Asia and Islamic republic of iran, and Europe.

Early Indian art [edit]

Rock art [edit]

Stone painting at one of the Bhimbetka rock shelters.

Prehistoric petroglyphs in the Edakkal Caves, Wayanad

Rock art of Bharat includes rock relief carvings, engravings and paintings, some (merely by no ways all) from the Southward Asian Stone Age. It is estimated there are about 1300 rock art sites with over a quarter of a million figures and figurines.^[1] The earliest rock carvings in Republic of india were discovered by Archibald Carlleyle, twelve years before the Cave of Altamira in Spain,^[two] although his work only came to light much later via J Cockburn (1899).^[3]

Dr. V. S. Wakankar discovered several painted stone shelters in Central India, situated around the Vindhya mountain range. Of these, the c. 750 sites making up the Bhimbetka stone shelters have been enrolled as a UNESCO World Heritage Site; the earliest paintings are some 10,000 years old.^[4] ^[five] ^[half-dozen] ^[vii] ^[8] The paintings in these sites commonly depicted scenes of human life aslope animals, and hunts with stone implements. Their way varied with region and age, simply the most common characteristic was a cerise launder fabricated using a powdered mineral chosen geru, which is a form of Iron Oxide (Hematite).^[9]

Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300 BC – c. 1750 BC) [edit]

Despite its widespread and sophistication, the Indus Valley civilization seems to have taken no interest in public big-scale fine art, different many other early civilizations. A number of gilded, terra cotta and stone figurines of girls in dancing poses reveal the presence of some forms of dance. Additionally, the terracotta figurines included cows, bears, monkeys, and dogs.

Much the virtually common form of figurative art plant is small carved seals. Thousands of steatite seals have been recovered, and their physical graphic symbol is fairly consistent. In size they range from 3⁄iv inch to 1 1⁄2 inches foursquare. In most cases they have a pierced boss at the back to conform a cord for handling or for use as personal adornment. Seals have been found at Mohenjo-Daro depicting a figure standing on its head, and another, on the Pashupati Seal, sitting cross-legged in a yoga-like pose. This figure has been variously identified. Sir John Marshall identified a resemblance to the Hindu god, Shiva.^[10]

The animal depicted on a bulk of seals at sites of the mature period has non been clearly identified. Role bull, part zebra, with a majestic horn, it has been a source of speculation. As withal, there is insufficient evidence to substantiate claims that the image had religious or cultist significance, simply the prevalence of the image raises the question of whether or non the animals in images of the IVC are religious symbols.^[11] The most famous piece is the bronze Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-Daro, which shows remarkably advanced modelling of the human being effigy for this early date.^[12]

Later the finish of the Is Valley Civilization, there is a surprising absence of art of whatsoever great degree of sophistication until the Buddhist era. It is idea that this partly reflects the employ of perishable organic materials such equally wood.^[13]

Vedic catamenia [edit]

The millennium post-obit the collapse of the Indus Valley Culture, coinciding with the Indo-Aryan migration during the Vedic period, is devoid of anthropomorphical depictions.^[14] It has been suggested that the early Vedic religion focused exclusively on the worship of purely "uncomplicated forces of nature by means of elaborate sacrifices", which did not lend themselves hands to anthropomorphological representations.^[fifteen] ^[16] Various artefacts may belong to the Copper Hoard Civilization (second millennium BCE), some of them suggesting anthropomorphological characteristics.^[17] Interpretations vary as to the exact signification of these artifacts, or fifty-fifty the culture and the periodization to which they belonged.^[17] Some examples of creative expression also announced in abstruse pottery designs during the Black and red ware culture (1450-1200 BCE) or the Painted Grey Ware culture (1200-600 BCE), with finds in a wide area, including the expanse of Mathura.^[17]

Afterward a gap of virtually a thousand years, most of the early finds correspond to what is chosen the "second period of urbanization" in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE.^[17] The anthropomorphic delineation of various deities plain started in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, perchance every bit a issue of the influx of foreign stimuli initiated with the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley, and the ascension of culling local faiths challenging Vedism, such every bit Buddhism, Jainism and local popular cults.^[xiv]

Mauryan art (c. 322 BCE – c. 185 BCE) [edit]

The north Indian Maurya Empire flourished from 322 BCE to 185 BCE, and at its maximum extent controlled all of the sub-continent except the farthermost south equally well as influences from Indian ancient traditions, and Aboriginal Persia,^[18] as shown past the Pataliputra capital letter.

The emperor Ashoka, who died in 232 BCE, adopted Buddhism virtually one-half-way through his 40-year reign, and patronized several large stupas at fundamental sites from the life of the Buddha, although very little decoration from the Mauryan period survives, and there may not take been much in the starting time identify. At that place is more from various early sites of Indian rock-cutting architecture.

The about famous survivals are the large animals surmounting several of the Pillars of Ashoka, which showed a confident and boldly mature manner and craft and first of its kind iron casting without rust until date, which was in use by vedic people in rural areas of the country, though we have very few remains showing its development.^[19] The famous detached Panthera leo Upper-case letter of Ashoka, with 4 animals, was adopted as the official Emblem of Republic of india after Indian independence.^[twenty] Mauryan sculpture and compages is characterized by a very fine Mauryan polish given to the stone, which is rarely found in later periods.

Many modest popular terracotta figurines are recovered in archaeology, in a range of often vigorous if somewhat crude styles. Both animals and human figures, usually females presumed to be deities, are found.^[21]

Colossal Yaksha statuary (second century BCE) [edit]

Yakshas seem to have been the object of an important cult in the early periods of Indian history, many of them being known such as Kubera, king of the Yakshas, Manibhadra or Mudgarpani.^[23] The Yakshas are a wide course of nature-spirits, usually benevolent, just sometimes mischievous or capricious, connected with water, fertility, trees, the forest, treasure and wilderness,^[24] ^[25] and were the object of popular worship.^[26] Many of them were later incorporated into Buddhism, Jainism or Hinduism.^[23]

In the 2nd century BCE, Yakshas became the focus of the cosmos of jumbo cultic images, typically around 2 meters or more in height, which are considered as probably the first Indian anthropomorphic productions in stone.^[27] ^[23] Although few ancient Yaksha statues remain in good condition, the vigor of the way has been applauded, and expresses essentially Indian qualities.^[27] They are ofttimes pot-bellied, two-armed and fierce-looking.^[23] The Yashas are oftentimes depicted with weapons or attributes, such as the Yaksha Mudgarpani who in the correct hand holds a mudgar mace, and in the left paw the figure of a small standing devotee or kid joining hands in prayer.^[28] ^[23] It is often suggested that the mode of the colossal Yaksha statuary had an important influence on the creation of afterward divine images and human figures in India.^[29] The female equivalent of the Yashas were the Yashinis, often associated with trees and children, and whose voluptuous figures became omnipresent in Indian art.^[23]

Some Hellenistic influence, such every bit the geometrical folds of the drapery or the walking stance of the statues, has been suggested.^[27] According to John Boardman, the hem of the dress in the monumental early Yaksha statues is derived from Greek art.^[27] Describing the drape of one of these statues, John Boardman writes: "It has no local antecedents and looks most like a Greek Late Archaic mannerism", and suggests it is possibly derived from the Hellenistic art of nearby Bactria where this design is known.^[27]

In the production of colossal Yaksha statues carved in the round, which can be found in several locations in northern Bharat, the art of Mathura is considered as the most advanced in quality and quantity during this period.^[30]

Buddhist art (c. 150 BCE – c. 500 CE) [edit]

Crossbar medallion with elephant and riders, Mathura art, circa 150 BCE.^[31]

The major survivals of Buddhist art begin in the period later the Mauryans, from which proficient quantities of sculpture survives. Some key sites are Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati, some of which remain in situ, with others in museums in India or around the world. Stupas were surrounded by ceremonial fences with iv profusely carved toranas or ornamental gateways facing the cardinal directions. These are in stone, though conspicuously adopting forms developed in woods. They and the walls of the stupa itself can exist heavily decorated with reliefs, mostly illustrating the lives of the Buddha. Gradually life-size figures were sculpted, initially in deep relief, only and then free-continuing.^[32] Mathura was the most important eye in this development, which applied to Hindu and Jain art equally well as Buddhist.^[33] The facades and interiors of rock-cut chaitya prayer halls and monastic viharas have survived improve than like free-standing structures elsewhere, which were for long mostly in wood. The caves at Ajanta, Karle, Bhaja and elsewhere contain early sculpture, often outnumbered by later works such equally iconic figures of the Buddha and bodhisattvas, which are not found before 100 CE at the to the lowest degree.

Buddhism developed an increasing emphasis on statues of the Buddha, which was greatly influenced by Hindu and Jain religious figurative art, The figures of this menstruation which were also influenced by the Greco-Buddhist art of the centuries after the conquests of Alexander the Neat. This fusion developed in the far north-west of India, especially Gandhara in modern Transitional islamic state of afghanistan and Pakistan.^[34] The Indian Kushan Empire spread from Cardinal Asia to include northern India in the early on centuries CE, and briefly commissioned large statues that were portraits of the royal dynasty.^[35]

Shunga Dynasty (c. 185 BCE – 72 BCE) [edit]

The Great Stupa at Sanchi, c. 273 BCE – 232 BCE (Mauryan Empire), enlarged c. 150 BCE – 50 BCE (Shunga Dynasty)

With the fall of the Maurya Empire, control of India was returned to the older custom of regional dynasties, 1 of the most significant of which was the Shunga Dynasty (c. 185 BCE – 72 BCE) of primal India. During this menstruation, equally well as during the Satavahana Dynasty which occurred concurrently with the Shunga Dynasty in south Bharat, some of the most meaning early on Buddhist architecture was created. Arguably, the most pregnant architecture of this dynasty is the stupa, a religious monument which usually holds a sacred relic of Buddhism. These relics were oft, only non always, in some style directly connected to the Buddha. Due to the fact that these stupas contained remains of the Buddha himself, each stupa was venerated as beingness an extension of the Buddha'south torso, his enlightenment, and of his achievement of nirvana. The way in which Buddhists venerate the stupa is by walking effectually it in a clockwise mode.^[36]

A awe-inspiring rock-cutting cave, the Groovy Chaitya at Karla Caves, congenital circa 120 CE

One of the about notable examples of the Buddhist stupa from the Shunga Dynasty is The Great Stupa at Sanchi, which was thought to be founded by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka c. 273 BCE – 232 BCE during the Maurya Empire.^[37] The Dandy Stupa was enlarged to its nowadays bore of 120 feet, covered with a stone casing, topped with a balcony and umbrella, and encircled with a stone railing during the Shunga Dynasty c. 150 BCE - l BCE.

In addition to architecture, another significant fine art form of the Shunga Dynasty is the elaborately moulded terracotta plaques. As seen in previous examples from the Mauryan Empire, a style in which surface detail, nudity, and sensuality is continued in the terracotta plaques of the Shunga Dynasty. The most common figural representations seen on these plaques are women, some of which are thought to be goddesses, who are by and large shown as bare-chested and wearing elaborate headdresses.^[38]

Satavahana dynasty (c. 1st/3rd century BCE – c. third century CE) [edit]

The Satavahana dynasty ruled in central Republic of india, and sponsored many large Buddhist monuments, stupas, temples, and prayer-halls, including the Amaravati Stupa, the Karla Caves, and the beginning phase of the Ajanta Caves.^[39]

Stupas are religious monuments built on burial mounds, which contain relics beneath a solid dome. Stupas in different areas of India may vary in structure, size, and pattern; yet, their representational meanings are quite similar. They are designed based on a mandala, a graph of cosmos specific to Buddhism. A traditional stupa has a railing that provides a sacred path for Buddhist followers to practice devotional circumambulation in ritual settings. Also, ancient Indians considered caves as sacred places since they were inhabited by holy men and monks. A chaitya was constructed from a cavern.^[36]

Relief sculptures of Buddhist figures and epigraphs written in Brahmi characters are often establish in divine places specific to Buddhism.^[40] To celebrate the divine, Satavahana people also made rock images as the decoration in Buddhist architectures. Based on the knowledge of geometry and geology, they created ideal images using a set up of complex techniques and tools such as chisels, hammers, and compasses with iron points.^[41]

In add-on, delicate Satavahana coins bear witness the capacity of creating fine art in that menstruation. The Satavahanas issued coins primarily in copper, pb and potin. Subsequently on, silver came into utilize when producing coins. The coins ordinarily take detailed portraits of rulers and inscriptions written in the language of Tamil and Telugu.^[twoscore]

Kushan Empire (c. 30 CE - c. 375 CE) [edit]

Officially established by Kujula Kadphises, the kickoff Kushan emperor who united the Yuezhi tribes, the Kushan empire was a syncretic empire in central and southern Asia, including the regions of Gandhara and Mathura in northern India. From 127 to 151 CE, Gandharan reached its acme nether the reign of Kanishka the Smashing. In this menstruum, Kushan art inherited the Greco-Buddhist fine art.^[42] Mahayana Buddhism flourished, and the depictions of Buddha as a human form first appeared in art. Wearing a monk'due south robe and a long length of cloth draped over the left shoulder and around the body, the Buddha was depicted with 32 major lakshanas (distinguishing marks), including a golden-colored body, an ushnisha (a protuberance) on the top of his head, heavy earrings, elongated earlobes, long arms, the impression of a chakra (wheel) on the palms of his hands and the soles of his feet, and the urna (a marker betwixt his eyebrows).^[36] Ane of the hallmarks of Gandharan art is its relation to naturalism of Hellenistic art. The naturalistic features establish in Gandharan sculptures include the iii-dimensional handling of the drapery, with unregularized folds that are in realistic patterns of random shape and thickness. The physical course of the Buddha and his bodhisattvas are well-defined, solid, and muscular, with swelling chests, artillery, and abdomens.^[43] Buddhism and Buddhism art spread to Primal Asia and the far East across Bactria and Sogdia, where the Kushan Empire met the Han Dynasty of Mainland china.^[44]

Gupta fine art (c. 320 CE – c. 550 CE) [edit]

The Gupta period is more often than not regarded as a classic peak of north Indian fine art for all the major religious groups. Although painting was plainly widespread, and survives in the Ajanta Caves, the surviving works are almost all religious sculpture.

The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu fine art, too as the Buddha-figure and Jain tirthankara figures, these concluding oftentimes on a very large scale. The main centres of sculpture were Mathura Sarnath, and Gandhara, the final the heart of Greco-Buddhist fine art.

The Gupta period marked the "golden age" of classical Hinduism,^[45] and saw the earliest constructed Hindu temple compages, though survivals are not numerous.

Ajanta Caves Fresco

Middle kingdoms and the Late Medieval menses (c. 600 CE – c. 1300 CE) [edit]

Over this period Hindu temple architecture matured into a number of regional styles, and a big proportion of the art historical record for this menstruum consists of temple sculpture, much of which remains in identify. The political history of the eye kingdoms of Bharat saw India divided into many states, and since much of the grandest edifice was commissioned by rulers and their court, this helped the evolution of regional differences. Painting, both on a large scale on walls, and in miniature forms, was no doubt very widely adept, only survivals are rare. Medieval bronzes accept most commonly survived from either the Tamil due south, or the Himalayan foothills.

Dynasties of Due south India (c. 3rd century CE – c. 1300 CE) [edit]

Inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka mention coexistence of the northern kingdoms with the triumvirate of Chola, Chera and Pandya Tamil dynasties, situated south of the Vindhya mountains.^[46] The medieval period witnessed the ascent and autumn of these kingdoms, in conjunction with other kingdoms in the area. Information technology is during the pass up and resurgence of these kingdoms that Hinduism was renewed. Information technology fostered the construction of numerous temples and sculptures.

Youth in lotus pond, ceiling fresco at Sittanvasal, 850 CE

The Shore Temple at Mamallapuram constructed by the Pallavas symbolizes early on Hindu architecture, with its monolithic rock relief and sculptures of Hindu deities. They were succeeded by Chola rulers who were prolific in their pursuit of the arts. The Smashing Living Chola Temples of this period are known for their maturity, grandeur and attention to detail, and have been recognized as a UNESCO Heritage Site.^[47] The Chola catamenia is also known for its bronze sculptures, the lost-wax casting technique and fresco paintings. Thank you to the Hindu kings of the Chalukya dynasty, Jainism flourished alongside Islam evidenced past the fourth of the Badami cavern temples existence Jain instead of Vedic. The kingdoms of Southward Bharat continued to dominion their lands until the Muslim invasions that established sultanates there and destroyed much of the temples and marvel examples of architectures and sculptures

Temples of Khajuraho (c. 800 CE – c. chiliad CE) [edit]

Recognized equally a UNESCO World Heritage Site,^[48] the Khajuraho group of monuments were constructed by the Chandela clan of the Rajput dynasties. Autonomously from the usual Hindu temples, 10% of the sculptures depict twisted bodies of men and women that shed light on the everyday socio-cultural and religious practices in Medieval India. E'er since their discovery, the degree of sexuality depicted in these sculptures has drawn both negative and positive criticism from scholars.^[49] ^[50] ^{[ need quotation to verify ]}

The Khajuraho temples were in active use under Hindu kingdoms, until the establishment of the Delhi Sultanates of the 13th century. Under Muslim rule until the 18th century, many of Khajuraho'southward monuments were destroyed, but a few ruins still remain.

Deccan [edit]

Other Hindu states are at present mainly known through their surviving temples and their attached sculpture. These include Badami Chalukya architecture (5th to 6th centuries), Western Chalukya architecture (11th to twelfth centuries) and Hoysala architecture (11th to 14th centuries), all centred on modern Karnataka.

Eastern India [edit]

In east India, Odisha and West Bengal, Kalinga architecture was the broad temple style, with local variants, before the Muslim conquest.

In antiquity, Bengal was a pioneer of painting in Asia under the Pala Empire. Miniature and scroll painting flourished during the Mughal Empire. Kalighat painting or Kalighat Pat originated in the 19th century Bengal, in the vicinity of Kalighat Kali Temple of Kolkata, and from beingness items of gift taken by the visitors to the Kali temple, the paintings over a period of time developed as a distinct schoolhouse of Indian painting. From the delineation of Hindu gods other mythological characters, the Kalighat paintings developed to reflect a variety of themes.

Rasmancha, Bishnupur. Built by King Bir Hambir, the temple has an unusual elongated pyramidical tower, surrounded by hut-shaped turrets, which were very typical of Bengali roof structures of the time.

Early on Mod and Colonial Era (c. 1400 CE – c. 1800 CE) [edit]

Mughal art [edit]

Although Islamic conquests in Bharat were made as early on every bit the showtime half of the 10th century, it wasn't until the Mughal Empire that one observes emperors with a patronage for the fine arts. Emperor Humayun, during his reestablishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1555, brought with him Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd al-Samad, two of the finest painters from Western farsi Shah Tahmasp'due south renowned atelier.

During the reign of Akbar (1556—1605), the number of painters grew from effectually 30 during the creation of the Hamzanama in the mid-1560s, to effectually 130 past the mid 1590s.^[51] According to court historian Abu'l-Fazal, Akbar was hands-on in his interest of the arts, inspecting his painters regularly and rewarding the all-time.^[52] It is during this time that Persian artists were attracted to bringing their unique fashion to the empire. Indian elements were present in their works from the beginning, with the incorporation of local Indian flora and creature that were otherwise absent from the traditional Persian manner. The paintings of this time reflected the vibrancy and inclusion of Akbar's kingdom, with product of Persian miniatures, the Rajput paintings (including the Kangra school) and the Pahari style of Northern Republic of india. They also influenced the Company fashion watercolor paintings created during the British rule many years later.

Mughal art of Northern India (pre-1600) and its influences

Arghan Div Brings the Chest of Armor to Hamza, from Volume 7 of the Hamzanama, supervised by Samad, ca. 1562—1577. Opaque watercolor and gold on cotton.
Krishna playing flute, ca. 1790—1800, Guler/Kangra region. Opaque watercolor and gold on paper.

With the death of Akbar, his son Jahangir (1605–1627) took the throne. He preferred each painter piece of work on a single slice rather than the collaboration fostered during Akbar'south time. This menstruation marks the emergence of distinct individual styles, notably Bishan Das, Manohar Das, Abu al-Hasan, Govardhan, and Daulat.^[53] Jahangir himself had the capability to place the work of each individual artist, fifty-fifty if the piece of work was unnamed. The Razmnama (Western farsi translation of the Hindu epic Mahabharata) and an illustrated memoir of Jahangir, named Tuzuk-i Jahangiri, were created under his rule. Jahangir was succeeded by Shah Jahan (1628–1658), whose most notable architectural contribution is the Taj Mahal. Paintings under his dominion were more formal, featuring court scenes, in contrast to the personal styles from his predecessor'south time. Aurangzeb (1658–1707), who held increasingly orthodox Sunni behavior, forcibly took the throne from his father Shah Jahan. With a ban of music and painting in 1680, his reign saw the decline of Mughal patronage of the arts.

As painting declined in the royal court, artists and the general influence of Mughal painting spread to the princely courts and cities of north India, where both portraiture, the illustration of the Indian epics, and Hindu religious painting developed in many local schools and styles. Notable amongst these were the schools of Rajput, Pahari, Deccan, Kangra painting.

Mughal art of Northern India (post-1600)

Jahangir in Darbar, from the Jahangir-nama, c. 1620. Gouache on newspaper.
Portrait of the emperor Shah Jahan, enthroned. ca. 17th century.
A durbar scene with the newly crowned Emperor Aurangzeb.

Other medieval Indian kingdoms [edit]

The last empire in southern India has left spectacular remains of Vijayanagara architecture, especially at Hampi, Karnataka, oft heavily decorated with sculpture. These developed the Chola tradition. Subsequently the Mughal conquest, the temple tradition connected to develop, mainly in the expansion of existing temples, which added new outer walls with increasingly large gopurams, often dwarfing the older buildings in the middle. These became usually thickly covered with plaster statues of deities and other religious figures, which need have their brightly-coloured paint kept renewed at intervals so they do not erode away.

In South-Central India, during the late fifteenth century after the Middle kingdoms, the Bahmani sultanate disintegrated into the Deccan sultanates centered at Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar. They used vedic techniques of metal casting, rock etching, and painting, as well every bit a distinctive architectural style with the improver of citadels and tombs from Mughal architecture. For example, the Baridi dynasty (1504–1619) of Bidar saw the invention of bidri ware, which was adopted from Vedic and Maurya catamenia ashoka pillars of zinc mixed with copper, tin, and lead and inlaid with silver or brass, then covered with a mud paste containing sal ammoniac, which turned the base metal black, highlighting the colour and sheen of the inlaid metal. Only after the Mughal conquest of Ahmadnagar in 1600 did the Persian influence patronized by the Turco-Mongol Mughals begin to touch Deccan art.

Deccan art of Southward-Central India

Portrait of Abu'l Hasan, the last Sultan of Golconda, c. tardily 17th—early 18th century
Chand Bibi hawking, an 18th-century Deccan painting, gouache heightened with gold on paper

British menstruum (1841–1947) [edit]

British colonial rule had a great impact on Indian fine art, peculiarly from the mid-19th century onwards. Many old patrons of fine art became less wealthy and influential, and Western art more ubiquitous every bit the British Empire established schools of fine art in major cities. The oldest, the Authorities Higher of Fine Arts, Chennai, was established in 1850. In major cities with many Europeans, the Company fashion of small paintings became common, created by Indian artists working for European patrons of the East Bharat Company. The style mainly used watercolour, to convey soft textures and tones, in a style combining influences from Western prints and Mughal painting.^[54] By 1858, the British government took over the job of administration of India nether the British Raj. Many commissions past Indian princes were now wholly or partly in Western styles, or the hybrid Indo-Saracenic architecture. The fusion of Indian traditions with European fashion at this time is evident from Raja Ravi Varma'due south oil paintings of sari-clad women in a svelte fashion.

Pre-independence Indian art

Bengal School of Art [edit]

The Bengal School of Art commonly referred as Bengal School, was an art movement and a style of Indian painting that originated in Bengal, primarily Kolkata and Shantiniketan, and flourished throughout the Indian subcontinent, during the British Raj in the early 20th century. Also known as 'Indian way of painting' in its early days, it was associated with Indian nationalism (swadeshi) and led by Abanindranath Tagore (1871-1951), but was besides promoted and supported by British arts administrators like E. B. Havell, the principal of the Government Higher of Art and Arts and crafts, Kolkata from 1896; eventually it led to the development of the modern Indian painting.

Tagore later attempted to develop links with Japanese artists as part of an aspiration to construct a pan-Asianist model of art. Through the paintings of 'Bharat Mata', Abanindranath established the pattern of patriotism. Painters and artists of Bengal school were Nandalal Bose, M.A.R Chughtai, Sunayani Devi (sister of Abanindranath Tagore), Manishi Dey, Mukul Dey, Kalipada Ghoshal, Asit Kumar Haldar, Sudhir Khastgir, Kshitindranath Majumdar, Sughra Rababi.

Between 1920 and 1925, Gaganendranath pioneered experiments in modernist painting. Partha Mitter describes him as "the only Indian painter before the 1940s who made apply of the language and syntax of Cubism in his painting". From 1925 onwards, the artist developed a complex postal service-cubist fashion.

With the Swadeshi Movement gaining momentum by 1905, Indian artists attempted to resuscitate the cultural identities suppressed by the British, rejecting the Romanticized style of the Company paintings and the mannered piece of work of Raja Ravi Varma and his followers. Thus was created what is known today as the Bengal School of Art, led by the reworked Asian styles (with an emphasis on Indian nationalism) of Abanindranath Tagore (1871—1951), who has been referred to as the male parent of Mod Indian art.^[55] Other artists of the Tagore family, such as Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) and Gaganendranath Tagore (1867–1938) as well every bit new artists of the early on 20th century such as Amrita Sher-Gil (1913–1941) were responsible for introducing Avant-garde western styles into Indian Art. Many other artists similar Jamini Roy and later Southward.H. Raza took inspiration from folk traditions. In 1944, K.C.South. Paniker founded the Progressive Painters' Association (PPA) thus giving rise to the "madras move" in art.^[56]

Journey'due south End by Abanindranath Tagore.
Two cats holding a large prawn by Jamini Roy.
Pratima Visarjan past Gaganendranath Tagore.
Gaganendranath Tagore - Meeting at the Staircase.
Fresco past Nandalal Bose in Dinantika - Ashram Complex - Santiniketan.

Contemporary art (c. 1900 CE-present) [edit]

In 1947, India became independent of British dominion. A group of six artists - G. H. Ara, S. K. Bakre, H. A. Gade, M.F. Husain, Southward.H. Raza and Francis Newton Souza - founded the Bombay Progressive Artists' Group in the yr 1952, to plant new ways of expressing Bharat in the post-colonial era. Though the group was dissolved in 1956, it was profoundly influential in changing the idiom of Indian art. Nearly all India's major artists in the 1950s were associated with the group. Some of those who are well-known today are Bal Chabda, Manishi Dey, V. Southward. Gaitonde, Krishen Khanna, Ram Kumar, Tyeb Mehta, Thousand. G. Subramanyan, A. Ramachandran, Devender Singh, Akbar Padamsee, John Wilkins, Himmat Shah and Manjit Bawa.^[57] Present-24-hour interval Indian art is varied as it had been never before. Amidst the best-known artists of the newer generation include Bose Krishnamachari and Bikash Bhattacharjee. Another prominent Pakistani modernist was Ismail Gulgee, who later on about 1960 adopted an abstract idiom that combines aspects of Islamic calligraphy with an abstruse expressionist (or gestural abstractionist) sensibility.

Painting and sculpture remained important in the later half of the twentieth century, though in the work of leading artists such as Nalini Malani, Subodh Gupta, Narayanan Ramachandran, Vivan Sundaram, Jitish Kallat, Jamini Roy they often institute radical new directions. Bharti Dayal has chosen to handle the traditional Mithila painting in virtually contemporary way and created her own manner through the exercises of her ain imagination, they announced fresh and unusual.

The increase in soapbox well-nigh Indian art, in English language as well as vernacular Indian languages, changed the way art was perceived in the art schools. Critical approach became rigorous; critics like Geeta Kapur, R. Siva Kumar,^[58] ^[59] Shivaji K. Panikkar, Ranjit Hoskote, amongst others, contributed to re-thinking gimmicky art practice in India.

Pseudorealistic Indian painting. Couple, Kids and Confusion. by Devajyoti Ray.

Material history of Indian art [edit]

Sculpture [edit]

The starting time known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent is from the Indus Valley civilization (3300–1700 BC), found in sites at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa in modern-day Islamic republic of pakistan. These include the famous small-scale bronze male dancerNataraja. However such figures in bronze and stone are rare and greatly outnumbered by pottery figurines and stone seals, oft of animals or deities very finely depicted. Afterwards the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization in that location is niggling record of sculpture until the Buddhist era, autonomously from a hoard of copper figures of (somewhat controversially) c. 1500 BCE from Daimabad.^[threescore] Thus the great tradition of Indian monumental sculpture in stone appears to begin relatively belatedly, with the reign of Ashoka from 270 to 232 BCE, and the Pillars of Ashoka he erected around Republic of india, carrying his edicts and topped by famous sculptures of animals, mostly lions, of which six survive.^[61] Big amounts of figurative sculpture, by and large in relief, survive from Early Buddhist pilgrimage stupas, above all Sanchi; these probably developed out of a tradition using wood.^[62] Indeed, wood continued to be the chief sculptural and architectural medium in Kerala throughout all historic periods until recent decades.^[63]

During the 2nd to 1st century BCE in far northern India, in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara from what is now southern Afghanistan and northern Islamic republic of pakistan, sculptures became more explicit, representing episodes of the Buddha'due south life and teachings. Although India had a long sculptural tradition and a mastery of rich iconography, the Buddha was never represented in human grade before this time, but only through some of his symbols. This may be because Gandharan Buddhist sculpture in modern Transitional islamic state of afghanistan displays Greek and Persian artistic influence. Artistically, the Gandharan school of sculpture is said to accept contributed wavy pilus, drapery covering both shoulders, shoes and sandals, acanthus leaf decorations, etc.

The pink sandstone Hindu, Jain and Buddhist sculptures of Mathura from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE reflected both native Indian traditions and the Western influences received through the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, and effectively established the ground for subsequent Indian religious sculpture.^[62] The style was developed and diffused through most of Bharat nether the Gupta Empire (c. 320-550) which remains a "classical" period for Indian sculpture, covering the earlier Ellora Caves,^[64] though the Elephanta Caves are probably slightly after.^[65] Later big scale sculpture remains nigh exclusively religious, and generally rather conservative, frequently reverting to simple frontal standing poses for deities, though the attendant spirits such equally apsaras and yakshi often take sensuously curving poses. Etching is often highly detailed, with an intricate backing backside the main figure in high relief. The celebrated lost wax bronzes of the Chola dynasty (c. 850–1250) from s India, many designed to be carried in processions, include the iconic form of Shiva as Nataraja,^[66] with the massive granite carvings of Mahabalipuram dating from the previous Pallava dynasty.^[67] The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes.^[68] Among the existing specimens in the various museums of the world and in the temples of Due south Bharat may exist seen many fine figures of Siva in various forms, Vishnu and his wife Lakshmi, Siva saints and many more than.^[69]

Wall painting [edit]

The tradition and methods of Indian cliff painting gradually evolved throughout many thousands of years - at that place are multiple locations found with prehistoric art. The early caves included overhanging stone busy with stone-cut art and the use of natural caves during the Mesolithic period (6000 BCE). Their use has continued in some areas into historic times.^[70] The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka are on the edge of the Deccan Plateau where deep erosion has left huge sandstone outcrops. The many caves and grottos constitute there contain primitive tools and decorative rock paintings that reflect the ancient tradition of homo interaction with their landscape, an interaction that continues to this twenty-four hours.^[71]

The oldest surviving frescoes of the historical period have been preserved in the Ajanta Caves with Cave x having some from the 1st century CE, though the larger and more famous groups are from the 5th century. Despite climatic atmospheric condition that tend to work confronting the survival of older paintings, in total there are known more 20 locations in India with paintings and traces of former paintings of ancient and early medieval times (up to the 8th to 10th centuries CE),^[72] although these are only a tiny fraction of what would have once existed. The most significant frescoes of the ancient and early medieval period are plant in the Ajanta, Bagh, Ellora, and Sittanavasal caves, the concluding being Jain of the seventh-10th centuries. Although many show evidence of being past artists mainly used to decorating palaces, no early on secular wall-paintings survive.^[73]

The Chola fresco paintings were discovered in 1931 within the circumambulatory passage of the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, and are the first Chola specimens discovered. Researchers have discovered the technique used in these frescoes. A smoothen concoction of limestone mixture is practical over the stones, which took two to iii days to gear up. Inside that short bridge, such large paintings were painted with natural organic pigments. During the Nayak period the Chola paintings were painted over. The Chola frescoes lying underneath have an ardent spirit of saivism is expressed in them. They probably synchronised with the completion of the temple by Rajaraja Cholan the Not bad.

Kerala mural painting has well-preserved fresco or mural or wall painting in temple walls in Pundarikapuram, Ettumanoor and Aymanam and elsewhere.

Miniature painting [edit]

Akbar riding the elephant Hawa'I pursuing another elephant

Although few Indian miniatures survive from before about yard CE, and some from the side by side few centuries, there was probably a considerable tradition. Those that survive are initially illustrations for Buddhist texts, later followed by Jain and Hindu equivalents, and the pass up of Buddhist as well as the vulnerable support cloth of the palm-leaf manuscript probably explain the rarity of early examples.^[74]

Mughal painting in miniatures on paper developed very quickly in the late 16th century from the combined influence of the existing miniature tradition and artists trained in the Persian miniature tradition imported by the Mughal Emperor's courtroom. New ingredients in the style were much greater realism, specially in portraits, and an involvement in animals, plants and other aspects of the physical world.^[75] Deccan painting developed around the same time in the Deccan sultanates courts to the due south, in some ways more vital, if less poised and elegant.^[76]

Miniatures either illustrated books or were single works for muraqqas or albums of painting and Islamic calligraphy. The style gradually spread in the next two centuries to influence painting on paper in both Muslim and Hindu princely courts, developing into a number of regional styles oft chosen "sub-Mughal", including Rajput painting, Pahari painting, and finally Company painting, a hybrid watercolour style influenced past European fine art and largely patronized by the people of the British raj. In "pahari" ("mountain") centres like that of Kangra painting the style remained vital and continued to develop into the early decades of the 19th century.^[77] From the mid-19th century Western-style easel paintings became increasingly painted by Indian artists trained in Government art schools.

Jewellery [edit]

The Indian subcontinent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery-making, with a history of over v,000 years.^[78] Using jewellery as a store of capital remains more common in Republic of india than in virtually modern societies, and gold appears e'er to accept been strongly preferred for the metal. India and the surrounding areas were important sources of high-quality gemstones, and the jewellery of the ruling class is typified by using them lavishly. One of the first to showtime jewellery-making were the people of the Indus Valley Civilization. Early remains are few, as they were non buried with their owners.

Other materials [edit]

Wood was undoubtedly extremely important, simply rarely survives long in the Indian climate. Organic animate being materials such equally ivory or bone were discouraged past the Dharmic religions, although Buddhist examples exist, such every bit the Begram ivories, many of Indian manufacture, simply found in Afghanistan, and some relatively mod carved tusks. In Muslim settings they are more than common.

Contextual history of Indian fine art [edit]

Temple art [edit]

Obscurity shrouds the menstruum between the decline of the Harappans and the definite historic period starting with the Mauryas, and in the historical period, the earliest Indian religion to inspire major artistic monuments was Buddhism. Though there may have been earlier structures in forest that accept been transformed into stone structures, at that place are no physical evidences for these except textual references. Soon later on the Buddhists initiated rock-cut caves, Hindus and Jains started to imitate them at Badami, Aihole, Ellora, Salsette, Elephanta, Aurangabad and Mamallapuram and Mughals. Information technology appears to be a constant in Indian fine art that the different religions shared a very similar artistic style at any detail period and place, though naturally adapting the iconography to friction match the faith commissioning them.^[79] Probably the same groups of artists worked for the different religions regardless of their ain affiliations.

Buddhist art commencement developed during the Gandhara period and Amaravati Periods around the 1st century BCE. It flourished greatly during the Gupta Periods and Pala Periods that comprise the Golden Historic period of Bharat. Although the most glorious art of these Indian empires was more often than not Buddhist in nature, later Hindu Empires like the Pallava, Chola, Hoysala and Vijayanagara Empires developed their own styles of Hindu art as well.

There is no time line that divides the creation of rock-cut temples and free-continuing temples built with cut stone as they developed in parallel. The edifice of free-standing structures began in the 5th century, while rock-cut temples connected to be excavated until the 12th century. An instance of a free-standing structural temple is the Shore Temple, a part of the Mahabalipuram Globe Heritage Site, with its slender tower, built on the shore of the Bay of Bengal with finely carved granite rocks cutting like bricks and dating from the 8th century.^[fourscore] ^[81]

Folk and tribal fine art [edit]

Folk and tribal art in Republic of india takes on unlike manifestations through varied media such as pottery, painting, metalwork,^[82] paper-fine art, weaving and designing of objects such equally jewellery and toys. These are not just aesthetic objects but in fact have an important significance in people's lives and are tied to their behavior and rituals. The objects can range from sculpture, masks (used in rituals and ceremonies), paintings, textiles, baskets, kitchen objects, arms and weapons, and the human body itself (tattoos and piercings). There is a deep symbolic meaning that is attached to not only the objects themselves but also the materials and techniques used to produce them.

Ofttimes puranic gods and legends are transformed into gimmicky forms and familiar images. Fairs, festivals, local heroes (mostly warriors) and local deities play a vital role in these arts (Case: Nakashi art from Telangana or Cherial Coil Painting).

Folk fine art also includes the visual expressions of the wandering nomads. This is the art of people who are exposed to irresolute landscapes as they travel over the valleys and highlands of India. They comport with them the experiences and memories of different spaces and their art consists of the transient and dynamic pattern of life. The rural, tribal and arts of the nomads institute the matrix of folk expression. Examples of folk arts are Warli, Madhubani Art, Manjusha Art, Tikuli Art, Gond fine art and Bhil art etc.

While near tribes and traditional folk creative person communities are assimilated into the familiar kind of civilised life, they still proceed to practice their art. Unfortunately though, market place and economic forces take ensured that the numbers of these artists are dwindling.^[83] ^[84] A lot of attempt is being made by various NGOs and the Regime of Republic of india to preserve and protect these arts and to promote them. Several scholars in India and across the globe have studied these arts and some valuable scholarship is available on them.

The folk spirit has a tremendous role to play in the development of art and in the overall consciousness of indigenous cultures.

Contextual Modernism [edit]

The yr 1997 bore witness to two parallel gestures of canon formation. On the one manus, the influential Baroda Group, a coalition whose original members included Vivan Sundaram, Ghulam Mohammed Sheikh, Bhupen Khakhar, and Nalini Malani—and which had left its marker on history in the grade of the 1981 exhibition "Identify for People"—was definitively historicized in 1997 with the publication of Gimmicky Art in Baroda, an anthology of essays edited past Sheikh. On the other hand, the fine art historian R. Siva Kumar'southward benchmark exhibition and related publication, A Contextual Modernism, restored the Santiniketan artists—Rabindranath Tagore, Nandalal Bose, Benode Behari Mukherjee, and Ramkinkar Baij—to their proper place as the originators of an indigenously achieved still transcultural modernism in the 1930s, well before the Progressives composed their manifesto in the belatedly 1940s. Of the Santiniketan artists, Siva Kumar observed that they "reviewed traditional antecedents in relation to the new avenues opened upward by cross-cultural contacts. They also saw it as a historical imperative. Cultural insularity, they realized, had to give way to eclecticism and cultural impurity."^[85]

The thought of Contextual Modernism emerged in 1997 from R. Siva Kumar's Santiniketan: The Making of a Contextual Modernism as a postcolonial critical tool in the understanding of an culling modernism in the visual arts of the erstwhile colonies similar Republic of india, specifically that of the Santiniketan artists.

Several terms including Paul Gilroy's counter culture of modernity and Tani Barlow's Colonial modernity take been used to describe the kind of alternative modernity that emerged in non-European contexts. Professor Gall argues that 'Contextual Modernism' is a more suited term considering "the colonial in colonial modernity does not accommodate the refusal of many in colonized situations to internalize inferiority. Santiniketan's artist teachers' refusal of subordination incorporated a counter vision of modernity, which sought to correct the racial and cultural essentialism that collection and characterized regal Western modernity and modernism. Those European modernities, projected through a triumphant British colonial ability, provoked nationalist responses, equally problematic when they incorporated similar essentialisms."^[86]

According to R. Siva Kumar "The Santiniketan artists were 1 of the get-go who consciously challenged this idea of modernism by opting out of both internationalist modernism and historicist indigenousness and tried to create a context sensitive modernism."^[87] He had been studying the work of the Santiniketan masters and thinking about their approach to fine art since the early 80s. The practice of subsuming Nandalal Bose, Rabindranath Tagore, Ram Kinker Baij and Benode Behari Mukherjee under the Bengal Schoolhouse of Art was, according to Siva Kumar, misleading. This happened considering early writers were guided by genealogies of apprenticeship rather than their styles, worldviews, and perspectives on art exercise.^[87]

Contextual Modernism in the recent past has found its usage in other related fields of studies, particularly in Architecture.^[88]

Art museums of Bharat [edit]

Major cities [edit]

National Museum, New Delhi
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya (CSMVS), Mumbai (formerly Prince of Wales Museum of Western India)
Indian Museum, Kolkata
Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad
Authorities Museum (Bangalore)
Government Museum, Chennai
Government Museum and Fine art Gallery, Chandigarh

Archaeological museums [edit]

AP State Archaeology Museum, Hyderabad
Archaeological Museum, Thrissur
City Museum, Hyderabad
Government Museum, Mathura
Government Museum, Tiruchirappalli
Hill Palace, Tripunithura, Ernakulam
Odisha State Museum, Bhubaneswar
Patna Museum
Pazhassi Raja Archaeological Museum, Kozhikode
Sanghol Museum
Sarnath Museum
State Archaeological Gallery, Kolkata
Victoria Jubilee Museum, Vijayawada

Modern art museums [edit]

National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi - established 1954.
National Gallery of Modern Fine art, Mumbai - established 1996.
National Gallery of Modern Art, Bangalore - inaugurated 2009.
Kolkata Museum of Modern Fine art - foundation laid in 2013.

Other museums [edit]

Albert Hall Museum, Jaipur
Allahabad Museum
Asutosh Museum of Indian Art, Kolkata
Baroda Museum & Picture Gallery
Goa Country Museum, Panaji
Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram
National Handicrafts and Handlooms Museum, New Delhi
Sanskriti Museums, Delhi
Watson Museum, Rajkot
Srimanthi Bai Memorial Government Museum, Mangalore

Notes [edit]

^ Jagadish Gupta (1996). Pre-historic Indian Painting. North Central Zone Cultural Centre.
^ Shiv Kumar Tiwari (1 Jan 2000s). Riddles of Indian Rockshelter Paintings. Sarup & Sons. pp. 8–. ISBN978-81-7625-086-iii.
^ Cockburn, John (1899). "Art. V.—Cave Drawings in the Kaimūr Range, North-West Provinces". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Gild of Britain & Ireland. New Serial. 31 (1): 89–97. doi:x.1017/S0035869X00026113.
^ Mathpal, Yashodhar (1984). Prehistoric Painting Of Bhimbetka. Abhinav Publications. p. 220. ISBN9788170171935.
^ Tiwari, Shiv Kumar (2000). Riddles of Indian Rockshelter Paintings. Sarup & Sons. p. 189. ISBN9788176250863.
^ Stone Shelters of Bhimbetka (PDF). UNESCO. 2003. p. xvi.
^ Mithen, Steven (2011). After the Ice: A Global Human History, twenty,000 - 5000 BC. Orion. p. 524. ISBN9781780222592.
^ Javid, Ali; Jāvīd, ʻAlī; Javeed, Tabassum (2008). World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India. Algora Publishing. p. 19. ISBN9780875864846.
^ Pathak, Dr. Meenakshi Dubey. "Indian Rock Art - Prehistoric Paintings of the Pachmarhi Hills". Bradshaw Foundation. Retrieved vii November 2014.
^ Marshall, Sir John. Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Culture, 3 vols, London: Arthur Probsthain, 1931
^ Keay, John, Republic of india, a History. New York: Grove Press, 2000.
^ Harle, fifteen-xix
^ Harle, 19-20
^ ^a ^b Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations". East and Westward. 39 (1/4): 111–143, especially 112–114, 115, 125. JSTOR 29756891.
^ Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations". E and West. 39 (1/four): 111–143. ISSN 0012-8376. JSTOR 29756891.
^ Krishan, Yuvraj; Tadikonda, Kalpana K. (1996). The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. nine-ten. ISBN978-81-215-0565-9.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert (2008). A Dictionary of Archeology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 248. ISBN978-0-470-75196-1.
^ Harle, 22-28
^ Harle, 22-26
^ State Keepsake Archived May 11, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, Know India india.gov.in
^ Harle, 39-42
^ Dated 100 BCE in Fig.88 in Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE. BRILL. p. 368, Fig. 88. ISBN9789004155374.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^east ^f Dalal, Roshen (2010). The Religions of Bharat: A Curtailed Guide to Nine Major Faiths. Penguin Books India. pp. 397–398. ISBN978-0-14-341517-6.
^ Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India. New Delhi: Pearson Didactics. p. 430. ISBN978-81-317-1120-0.
^ "yaksha". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 15 July 2007.
^ Sharma, Ramesh Chandra (1994). The Splendour of Mathurā Art and Museum. D.1000. Printworld. p. 76. ISBN978-81-246-0015-3.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^east Boardman, John (1993). The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity. Princeton University Printing. p. 112. ISBN0691036802.
^ Fig. 85 in Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE. BRILL. p. Fig.85, p.365. ISBN9789004155374.
^ "The folk art typifies an older plastic tradition in clay and wood which was at present put in stone, as seen in the massive Yaksha bronze which are besides of exceptional value as models of subsequent divine images and human being figures." in Agrawala, Vasudeva Sharana (1965). Indian Art: A history of Indian art from the earliest times upwardly to the third century A. D. Prithivi Prakashan. p. 84.
^ "With respect to large-scale iconic statuary carved in the round (...) the region of Mathura non simply rivaled other areas but surpassed them in overall quality and quantity throughout the second and early start century BCE." in Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early on Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE. BRILL. p. 24. ISBN9789004155374.
^ Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early on Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE. BRILL. pp. 23–25. ISBN9789004155374.
^ Harle, 105-117, 26-47
^ Harle, 59-seventy
^ Harle, 105-117, 71-84 on Gandhara
^ Harle, 68-lxx (but see p. 253 for another exception)
^ ^a ^b ^c Stokstad, Marilyn (2018). Art History. U.s.: Pearson Educational activity. pp. 306–310. ISBN9780134475882.
^ Department of Asian Fine art (2000). "Shunga Dynasty (ca. Second - First Century B.C.)". Retrieved November 26, 2018.
^ "Indian subcontinent". Oxford Art Online. 2003. Retrieved December iii, 2018.
^ Sarkar (2006). Hari smriti. New Delhi : Kaveri Books. p. 73. ISBN8174790756.
^ ^a ^b Sarma, I.K (2001). Sri Subrahmanya Smrti. New Delhi : Sundeep Prakashan. pp. 283–290. ISBN8175741023.
^ Nārāyaṇa Rāya, Udaya (2006). Art, archaeology, and cultural history of India. Delhi : B.R. Pub. Corp. ISBN8176464929.
^ Xinru Liu, The Silk Route in Earth History, New York: Oxford University Press, 2010, 42.
^ Lolita Nehru, Origins of the Gandharan Style, p. 63.
^ Chakravarti, Ranabir (2016-01-xi), "Kushan Empire", The Encyclopedia of Empire, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 1–vi, doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe147, ISBN9781118455074
^ Michaels, Axel (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present. Princeton University Press. p. xl. ISBN978-0-691-08953-9.
^ Dhammika, Ven. Due south. (1994). "The Edicts of King Ashoka (an English language rendering)". DharmaNet International. Archived from the original on March 28, 2014. Retrieved 22 November 2014. ... Dearest-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's domain, and among the people across the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, ...
^ "Great Living Chola Temples". UNESCO. 1987. Retrieved 22 Nov 2014.
^ "Khajuraho Group of Monuments". UNESCO Globe Heritage Listing. UNESCO. 1986. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
^ Panikkar, Thousand. M. (1955). "Presidential Address". Indian History Congress. Vol. 18th Session. Calcutta.
^ Dehejia, Vidya (1997). Representing the Body: Gender Issues in Indian Art. Delhi: Kali for Women (Women Unlimited). ISBN978-81-85107-32-5.
^ Seyller, John (1987). "Scribal Notes on Mughal Manuscript Illustrations". Artibus Asiae. 48 (3/4): 247–277. doi:10.2307/3249873. JSTOR 3249873.
^ Fazl, Abu'l (1927). Ain-i Akbari. Translated by H Blochmann. Asiatic Society of Bengal.
^ "Daulat". Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved thirteen November 2014.
^ George Michell; Catherine Lampert; Tristram Holland (1982). In the Image of Man: The Indian Perception of the Universe Through 2000 Years of Painting and Sculpture. Alpine Fine Arts Collection. ISBN978-0-933516-52-6.
^ Hachette India (25 Oct 2013). Indiapedia: The All-Bharat Factfinder. Hachette India. pp. 130–. ISBN978-93-5009-766-iii.
^ "For art's sake". The Hindu. February 12, 2009. Archived from the original on May 25, 2011. Retrieved Nov 23, 2014.
^ "Showcase – Artists Collectives". National Gallery of Mod Art, New Delhi. 2012-11-09. Retrieved 2014-11-23 .
^ "National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi".
^ "Rabindranath Tagore: The Concluding Harvest".
^ Harle, 17–xx
^ Harle, 22–24
^ ^a ^b Harle, 26–38
^ Harle, 342-350
^ Harle, 87; his Part 2 covers the menses
^ Harle, 124
^ Harle, 301-310, 325-327
^ Harle, 276–284
^ Chopra. et al., p. 186.
^ Tri. [Title needed]. p. 479.
^ "Prehistoric Rock Art". art-and-archaeology.com. Retrieved 2006-10-17 .
^ "Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka". Retrieved 2006-12-twenty .
^ "Ancient and medieval Indian cave paintings - Net encyclopedia". Wondermondo. 2010-06-x. Retrieved 2010-06-04 .
^ Harle, 355
^ Harle, 361-366
^ Harle, 372-382
^ Harle, 400-406
^ Harle, 407-420
^ Untracht, Oppi. Traditional Jewelry of India. New York: Abrams, 1997 ISBN 0-8109-3886-three. p15.
^ Harle, 59
^ Thapar, Binda (2004). Introduction to Indian Architecture. Singapore: Periplus Editions. pp. 36–37, 51. ISBN978-0-7946-0011-2.
^ "Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent". Retrieved 2006-12-21 .
^ dhokra art Archived 2010-12-29 at the Wayback Auto
^ GVSS, Gramin Vikas Seva Sanshtha (12 June 2011). "Evaluation Written report of Tribal/Folk Arts and Culture in Westward Bengal, Orissa, Jharkhand, Chhatisgarh and Bihar" (PDF). Planning Committee. Socio-Economic Inquiry (SER) Division, Planning Commission, Govt. of Republic of india New Delhi. p. 53. Retrieved 2 March 2015. ... globalization has triggered the emergence of a synthetic macro-civilisation...is gaining popularity day by day and silently engineering the gradual compunction of tribal/folk art and civilisation.
^ "Decline of tribal and folk arts lamented". Deccan Herald. Gudibanda, Karnataka, India. iii July 2008. Archived from the original on 2 March 2015. Retrieved 2 March 2015. In the wave of electronic media, our ... ancient culture and tribal art take been declining, ..., said folklore researcher J Srinivasaiah.
^ Hapgood, Susan; Hoskote, Ranjit (2015). "Abby Grey And Indian Modernism" (PDF). Grey Art Gallery. New York: New York University. Archived from the original (PDF) on three January 2016. Retrieved 12 March 2021.
^ Gall, David. "Overcoming Polarized Modernities: Counter-Mod Fine art Education: Santiniketan1Overcoming Polarized Modernities: Counter-Modern Art Education: Santiniketan,The Legacy of a Poet's School" (PDF). Hawaii University International Conferences . Retrieved 12 March 2021.
^ ^a ^b "Humanities underground » All the Shared Experiences of the Lived World II".
^ ""Contextual modernism" – is it possible? Steps to improved housing strategy". 2011.

References [edit]

Harle, J.C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, second edn. 1994, Yale Academy Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN 0300062176
Harsha V. Dehejia, The Advaita of Fine art (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000, ISBN 81-208-1389-8), p. 97
Kapila Vatsyayan, Classical Indian Dance in Literature and the Arts (New Delhi: Sangeet Natak Akademi, 1977), p. 8
Mitter, Partha. Indian Fine art (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-xix-284221-8)